Genital mutilation is a form of amputation or physical injury to the genital organs [1]. Although it affects women disproportionately (female genital mutilation), men and boys are also affected (forced male circumcision).
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM – or Female Sexual Mutilation – FSM)
Female genital mutilation is widespread around the world [2]. It is a harmful practice entailing the "partial or total removal of the external female genitalia" [3]. This procedure is often performed on the basis of ancestral, discriminatory, sexist and patriarchal cultural norms, which associate such harmful practice with concepts of femininity, such as virtue and purity, or the belief that the mutilation will increase desire and ability for marriage. There is no medical necessity or benefit to this practice. To the contrary, irreversible health damage is frequently caused to the women and girls subjected to it [4].
Due to its invasive nature and the severe physical and mental long-lasting consequences [5], FGM constitutes a violation of women’s and girls’ human rights [6] amounting to ill-treatment or torture [7]. According to the United Nations General Assembly, "female genital mutilations are an irreparable, irreversible abuse that impacts negatively on the human rights of women and girls" and "a harmful practice that constitutes a serious threat to the health of women and girls, including their psychological, sexual and reproductive health" [8].
Male Genital Mutilation
Male genital mutilation [9] comprises all procedures involving partial or total removal of external male genitalia or other injury to male genital organs. It often refers, but is not limited to, male circumcision.
The circumcision is a procedure of removal of the foreskin of the penis (the skin that covers the external extremity of the organ) [10]. It can be practised for various reasons, including medical (as prevention of HIV and other diseases or infections [11]), cultural, religious and social [12].
Circumcision has been less criticised by the international community. This can be explained by the fact that male circumcision is, according to the World Health Organization, "one of the oldest and most common surgical procedures worldwide", considered as a significantly safer practice than female mutilation [13]. According to the United Nations, male circumcision should only be performed where a) participants (including, as appropriate, parents or guardians) are fully informed; b) participants give their fully informed consent; and c) the procedure can be performed under fully hygienic conditions [14].
Male genital mutilation can also be perpetrated in conflict settings through, for example, the total or partial ablation of the penis and/or the testicles [15]. Mutilation of male detainees/prisoners can also occur and "is often carried out to attack and destroy their sense of masculinity or manhood" [16].
Female and male mutilation can both be prosecuted as acts of sexual violence [17] or, depending on the circumstances, as ill-treatment or torture [18] under international law, including as constituting an international crime [19]. States have a duty to prevent and protect against these harmful practices, abolish legislation and customs allowing them to perpetuate, prosecute perpetrators and provide reparation to victims [20].
Footnotes
<div id="nb1">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh1" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 1" rev="appendix">1</a>] </span>Medical Dictionary, <i><a href="https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/genital+mutilation" class="spip_out" rel="external">genital mutilation</a></i>.</p>
</div><div id="nb2">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh2" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 2" rev="appendix">2</a>] </span>United Nations Fund for Children (UNICEF), <i><a href="https://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern UNICEF</a></i>, 2016; See also UNFPA, <i><a href="https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/18-053_FGM-Infographic-2018-02-05-1804.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Bending the curve: FGM trends we aim to change</a></i>, 2018; WHO, <i><a href="https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/fgm/fgm-obstetric-outcome-study/en/" class="spip_out" rel="external">Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries</a></i>, 2006.</p>
</div><div id="nb3">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh3" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 3" rev="appendix">3</a>] </span>UNFPA, <i><a href="https://www.unfpa.org/resources/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-frequently-asked-questions#whatisfgm/" class="spip_out" rel="external">Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions</a></i>, July 2019.</p>
</div><div id="nb4">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh4" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 4" rev="appendix">4</a>] </span>WHO, <i><a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation" class="spip_out" rel="external">Female Genital Mutilation</a></i>, last updated 3 February 2020; UNFPA, <i><a href="https://www.unfpa.org/news/top-5-things-you-didnt-know-about-female-genital-mutilation" class="spip_out" rel="external">Top 5 things you didn’t know about female genital mutilation</a></i>, 5 February 2019.</p>
</div><div id="nb5">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh5" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 5" rev="appendix">5</a>] </span>FGM can have short and long term consequences on women and girls, such as: severe pain; chronic pain; excessive bleeding (haemorrhage); shock; genital tissue swelling; infections; human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); impaired wound healing; chronic genital infections; chronic reproductive tract infections; urinary tract infections; painful urination and urination problems; vaginal problems; menstrual problems; excessive scar tissue (keloids); sexual health problems; childbirth complications (obstetric complications); obstetric fistula; perinatal risks; mental health problems; death. See WHO, <i><a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation" class="spip_out" rel="external">Female Genital Mutilation</a></i>, op. cit.; WHO, <i><a href="https://www.who.int/sexual-and-reproductive-health/health-risks-of-female-genital-mutilation" class="spip_out" rel="external">Health risks of female genital mutilation (FGM)</a></i>.</p>
</div><div id="nb6">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh6" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 6" rev="appendix">6</a>] </span>WHO, UNICEF and UNFPA, <i><a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/41903/9241561866.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y" class="spip_out" rel="external">Joint statement: Female genital mutilation</a></i>, 1997; See also the joint Statement of 10 UN agencies WHO, <i><a href="https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/fgm/9789241596442/en/" class="spip_out" rel="external">Eliminating female genital mutilation</a></i>, 2008. The WHO also adopted a clinical handbook: WHO, <i><a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272429/9789241513913-eng.pdf?ua=1" class="spip_out" rel="external">Care of girls & women living with female genital mutilation, a Clinical Handbook</a></i>, 2018.</p>
</div><div id="nb7">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh7" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 7" rev="appendix">7</a>] </span>See for example Human Rights Council, <i><a href="https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/31/57" class="spip_out" rel="external">Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment</a></i>, A/HRC/31/57, 5 January 2016, para. 58.</p>
</div><div id="nb8">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh8" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 8" rev="appendix">8</a>] </span>United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), <i><a href="https://docs.un.org/en/a/res/67/146" class="spip_out" rel="external">Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations</a></i>, A/RES/67/146, 5 March 2013, Preamble.</p>
</div><div id="nb9">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh9" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 9" rev="appendix">9</a>] </span>Read more on male genital mutilation in George C. Denniston, Frederick M. Hodges and Marilyn Fayre Milos (Eds.), <i>Genital Cutting: Protecting Children from Medical, Cultural, and Religious Infringements</i>, Springer, 2013.</p>
</div><div id="nb10">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh10" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 10" rev="appendix">10</a>] </span>Merriam-Webster dictionary, <i><a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/circumcision" class="spip_out" rel="external">Circumcision</a></i>; S. Kaggwa and M. Galukande, "Male genital mutilation (amputation) and its complications: a case report", <i>BMC Research Notes</i>, Vol. 7, 2014, p. 1.</p>
</div><div id="nb11">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh11" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 11" rev="appendix">11</a>] </span>WHO, <i><a href="https://www.who.int/hiv/topics/malecircumcision/en/" class="spip_out" rel="external">Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention</a></i>; WHO, <i><a href="https://www.who.int/hiv/topics/malecircumcision/fact_sheet/en/" class="spip_out" rel="external">Voluntary medical male circumcision for HIV prevention</a></i>, July 2012.</p>
</div><div id="nb12">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh12" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 12" rev="appendix">12</a>] </span>Other reasons include cultural beliefs, social acceptance, or health reasons, see WHO and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS (UNAIDS), <i><a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43749/9789241596169_eng.pdf?sequence=1" class="spip_out" rel="external">Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability</a></i>, 2007, p. 4-5.</p>
</div><div id="nb13">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh13" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 13" rev="appendix">13</a>] </span>Ibid, p. 27; WHO and UNAIDS, <i><a href="https://www.who.int/hiv/pub/malecircumcision/neonatal_child_MC_UNAIDS.pdf?ua=1" class="spip_out" rel="external">Neonatal and child male circumcision: a global review</a></i>, 2010, p. 55.</p>
</div><div id="nb14">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh14" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 14" rev="appendix">14</a>] </span>UNAIDS, <i><a href="https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2007/march/20070302mcpt3" class="spip_out" rel="external">Moving forwards: UN policy and action on male circumcision (Part 3)</a></i>, 2 March 2007.</p>
</div><div id="nb15">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh15" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 15" rev="appendix">15</a>] </span>See for example, in the situation of Kenya: ICC, Pre-Trial Chamber I, <i><a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/CourtRecords/CR2012_01006.PDF" class="spip_out" rel="external">Prosecutor v. Francis Kirimi Muthaura, Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta and Mohammed Hussein Ali</a></i> (Kenyatta et al), Decision on the Confirmation of Charges Pursuant to Article 61(7) 5a) and (b) of the Rome Statute, ICC-01/09-02/11, 23 January 2012, paras. 260-266.</p>
</div><div id="nb16">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh16" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 16" rev="appendix">16</a>] </span>United Nations, <i><a href="https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/womenpeaceandsecurity.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Women, Peace and Security: Study submitted by the Secretary-General pursuant to Security Council resolution 1325 (2000)</a></i>, para. 59.</p>
</div><div id="nb17">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh17" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 17" rev="appendix">17</a>] </span>The Office of the Prosecutor of the ICC has recognised the importance of prosecuting genital mutilations as sexual violence, see <i>Policy Paper on Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes</i> op. cit. p. 13; Women’s Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ), <i><a href="https://4genderjustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/English-Civil-Society-Declaration-on-Sexual-Violence.pdf" class="spip_out" rel="external">Civil Society Declaration on Sexual Violence</a></i>, 2019, p. 28; United Nations Security Council (UNSC), <i><a href="https://docs.un.org/en/s/2009/693" class="spip_out" rel="external">Report of the International Commission of Inquiry mandated to establish the facts and circumstances of the events of 28 September 2009 in Guinea</a></i>, S/2009/693, 18 December 2009, p. 2.</p>
</div><div id="nb18">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh18" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 18" rev="appendix">18</a>] </span>Human Rights Council, <i><a href="https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/31/57" class="spip_out" rel="external">Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment</a></i>, A/HRC/31/57, 5 January 2016, paras. 58, 61-62; Committee against Torture, <i><a href="https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/C/GC/2" class="spip_out" rel="external">General Comment No 2: Convention against torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment</a></i>, CAT/C/GC/2, 24 January 2008, para. 18; REDRESS and Amnesty International, <i><a href="https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/33439277/gender-and-torture-conference-report-redress" class="spip_out" rel="external">Gender and Torture: Conference Report</a></i>, 2011, p. 30-31; The ICC recognised that male genital mutilation amounted to other inhumane acts, see ICC, <i>Confirmation of Charges Kenyatta et al</i>, op. cit., paras. 264-266.</p>
</div><div id="nb19">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh19" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 19" rev="appendix">19</a>] </span>Even though the accused was not convicted, see ICC, <i>Confirmation of Charges Kenyatta et al</i>, Ibid, para. 166.</p>
</div><div id="nb20">
<p><span class="spip_note_ref">[<a href="/en/genital-mutilation#nh20" class="spip_note" title="Footnotes 20" rev="appendix">20</a>] </span><i><a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-child" class="spip_out" rel="external">UN Convention on the Rights of the Child</a></i>, 20 November 1989 (entry into force 2 September 1990), Article 24(3); CEDAW Committee and Committee on the Rights of the Child, <i><a href="https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/31/CRC/C/GC/18" class="spip_out" rel="external">Joint general recommendation/general comment No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on harmful practices</a></i>, CEDAW/C/GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18, 4 November 2014; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), <i><a href="https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/2000/4" class="spip_out" rel="external">General Comment No. 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12)</a></i>, E/C.12/2000/4, 11 August 2000, para. 51.</p>
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